It is currently believed that improved sports performance can be attained by the intake of so-called sport drinks. These are usually non-carbonated and frequently contain fructose or other sugars, and complex carbohydrates, which are easily absorbed by the body, and are designed to promote the availability of energy and/or prevent or treat mild dehydration. Sport drinks also contain electrolytes (mainly sodium and potassium salts) and nutrients (proteins and amino acids). Sport drinks, energy drinks and other liquid, semi-solid and solid products, while marketed for athletes, are also consumed by non-athletes, as a snack, in situations where extra energy and endurance is desired.
Sometimes a distinction is made between sport drinks and energy drinks, the former tending to be more isotonic, and the latter containing more sugar and frequently also caffeine. In this context, no such distinction is intended, and the term “performance enhancing food or food supplement” includes sport drinks and energy drinks, as well as other liquid, semi-solid or solid forms, such as energy bars, tablets etc. as described in further detail below
Physiological adaptation to exercise however involves major cardiovascular and metabolic changes. Oxygen consumption increases dramatically in the active muscles with a parallel increase in muscle blood flow. In these processes the endogenous gas nitric oxide (NO) plays an important regulatory role. NO increases blood flow to the muscles and modulates muscular contraction and glucose uptake (for review see STAMLER, J S, et al. Physiology of nitric oxide in skeletal muscle. Physiol Rev. 2001, vol. 81, no. 1, p. 209-37).
In addition, NO is involved in control of cellular respiration through interaction with enzymes of the mitochondrial respiratory chain (for review see MONCADA, S, et al. Does nitric oxide modulate mitochondrial energy generation and apoptosis?. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol. 2002, vol. 3, no. 3, p. 214-20).
In vitro studies published in the 1990s show that NO is a modulator of mitochondrial respiration via reversible inhibition of cytochrome c oxidase (CARR, G J, et al. Nitric oxide formed by nitrite reductase of Paracoccus denitrificans is sufficiently stable to inhibit cytochrome oxidase activity and is reduced by its reductase under aerobic conditions. Biochim Biophys Acta. 15 May 1990, vol. 1017, no. 1, p. 57-62; BOLANOS, J P, et al. Nitric oxide-mediated inhibition of the mitochondrial respiratory chain in cultured astrocytes. J Neurochem. 1994, vol. 63, no. 2, p. 910-6; BROWN, G C, et al. Nanomolar concentrations of nitric oxide reversibly inhibit synaptosomal respiration by competing with oxygen at cytochrome oxidase. FEBS Lett. 19 Dec. 1994, vol. 356, no. 2-3, p. 295-8; CLEETER, M W, et al. Reversible inhibition of cytochrome c oxidase, the terminal enzyme of the mitochondrial respiratory chain, by nitric oxide. Implications for neurodegenerative diseases. FEBS Lett. 23 May 1994, vol. 345, no. 1, p. 50-4; and SCHWEIZER, M, et al. Nitric oxide potently and reversibly deenergizes mitochondria at low oxygen tension. Biochem Biophys Res Comm. 1994, no. 204, p. 169-75).
NO may also interact at other sites of the mitochondrial respiratory chain and in the Krebs cycle (for review see Moncada, supra). While this important action of NO has been very well characterised in cell cultures, less is known about its physiological relevance in vivo and the effects of NO on cellular respiration during physical exercise. Shen and colleagues showed that administration of NOS-inhibitors in vivo during submaximal exercise leads to increased oxygen consumption in dogs (SHEN, W, et al. Role of NO in the regulation of oxygen consumption in conscious dogs. Circulation Res. 1999, no. 84, p. 840-5) and Lacerda and colleagues showed similar results in rats (LACERDA, A C R, et al. Evidence that brain nitric oxide inhibition increases metabolic cost of exercise, reducing running performance in rats. Neuroscience Letters. 2006, no. 393, p. 260-3). The majority of studies have been done using NOS-inhibitors while the effects of administering exogenous NO on exercise are largely unknown. In addition, studies in healthy humans are scarce.
The classical means by which NO production occurs is the L-arginine pathway, where NO is synthesized by specific enzymes, the NO-synthases. A fundamentally different alternative way of generating NO has been described more recently (LUNDBERG, J O, et al. Intragastric nitric oxide production in humans: measurements in expelled air. Gut. 1994, vol. 35, no. 11, p. 1543-6; BENJAMIN, N, et al. Stomach NO synthesis. Nature. 7 Apr. 1994, vol. 368, no. 6471, p. 502; ZWEIER, J L, et al. Enzyme-independent formation of nitric oxide in biological tissues. Nat Med. 1995, vol. 1, no. 8, p. 804-9; and WEITZBERG, E, et al. Nonenzymatic nitric oxide production in humans. NO Biol Chem. 1998, no. 2, p. 1-7). In this NOS-independent pathway the inorganic anions nitrate (NO3−) and nitrite (NO2−) are reduced in vivo to form NO. Dietary nitrate (found mainly in green leafy vegetables) (MCKNIGHT, G M. Chemical synthesis of nitric oxide in the stomach from dietary nitrate in humans. Gut. 1997, no. 40, p. 211-214; and Weitzberg, 1998, supra) is absorbed from the circulation by the salivary glands, secreted in saliva and partly converted to nitrite in the oral cavity by nitrate reducing bacteria. Swallowed nitrite can then enter the systemic circulation. Indeed, a recent study shows that ingestion of nitrate results in a sustained increase in circulating nitrite levels (LUNDBERG, J O, et al. Inorganic nitrate is a possible source for systemic generation of nitric oxide. Free Rad Bio Med. 2004, vol. 37, no. 3, p. 395-400). Further reduction of nitrite into bioactive NO can occur spontaneously in acidic or reducing environments (Benjamin et al. 1994, supra, Lundberg et al. 1994, supra) but is also greatly enhanced by various proteins and enzymes including deoxyhemoglobin in blood (COSBY, K, et al. Nitrite reduction to nitric oxide by deoxyhemoglobin vasodilates the human circulation. Nat Med. 2003, vol. 9, no. 12, p. 1498-505), deoxymyoglobin (SHIVA, S, et al. Deoxymyoglobin is a Nitrite Reductase That Generates Nitric Oxide and Regulates Mitochondrial Respiration. Circ Res. 9 Feb. 2007), xanthine oxidase (MILLAR, T M, et al. Xanthine oxidoreductase catalyses the reduction of nitrates and nitrite to nitric oxide under hypoxic conditions. FEBS Lett. 8 May 1998, vol. 427, no. 2, p. 225-8) and possibly by enzymes of the mitochondrial respiratory chain (for review see LUNDBERG, J O, et al. Nitrate, bacteria and human health. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2004, vol. 2, no. 7, p. 593-602; LUNDBERG, J O, et al. NO generation from nitrite and its role in vascular control. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2005, vol. 25, no. 5, p. 915-22; and GLADWIN, M T, et al. The emerging biology of the nitrite anion. Nat Chem Biol. 2005, vol. 1, no. 6, p. 308-14). NOS-independent NO production seems to complement the endogenous NO production especially during ischemia and acidosis when oxygen availability is low and the NO synthases operate poorly (Zweier et al. 1995, supra; Weitzberg et al, 1998, supra; DURANSKI, M R, et al. Cytoprotective effects of nitrite during in vivo ischemia-reperfusion of the heart and liver. J Clin Invest. 2005, vol. 115, no. 5, p. 1232-40; Lundberg et al, 2004, supra). Tissue acidosis and relative hypoxia is present also during physical exercise and in this metabolic state, bioactivation of nitrite is likely enhanced.
The available information on the role of NO in healthy subjects and in particular in athletes during work or exercise is both insufficient and contradictory. Interestingly, the marketing of some currently available food supplements for athletes and bodybuilders refer to the vasodilatory effect of NO. One example is “NOX2” (Bodyonics, Ltd., USA), a product said to contain arginine alpha-ketoglutarate (A-AKG) and arginine-ketoisocaproate (A-KIC) and allegedly capable of boosting short term nitric oxide levels. Other products contain L-arginine, from which NO is synthesized by the NOS enzymes, and the beneficial effects of NO are often referred to, however without offering more detailed explanations.
The relation between peak work rate and resting levels of nitrate in plasma and urine from subjects with different levels of physical fitness has been studied (Jungersten et al., Both physical fitness and acute exercise regulate nitric oxide formation in healthy humans. J Appl Physiol 82:760-764, 1997). A positive relationship between physical fitness and formation of NO at rest was found and it was hypothesised that this positive relationship helps to explain the beneficial effects of physical exercise on cardiovascular health. In Jungerstens study nitrate was used solely as a marker of NO production and the authors state several times that nitrate is a stable and inert end product of NO and that it is biologically inactive.
The present inventors set out to test if administration of dietary nitrate would lead to increased systemic storage pools of nitrite and if this dietary strategy would have an impact on various physiological and biochemical parameters during exercise.